English Banking Law Essay

INTRODUCTION: There are three types of cheque frauds exists in UK viz. forged, counterfeit and fraudulently altered cheque fraud. In 2005, the cheque fraud in U.K was estimated about  £ 40.3 million – a 13% decrease from the 2004 total of  £ 46.2 million. The earlier year figures also revealed a steady increase totaling  £ 36million in 2002 and  £ 45million in 2003.In U.K during 2005, counterfeit cheque fraud was estimated at  £ 3.23m, forged cheques fraud was estimated at  £ 30.9 m in 2005 and fraudulently altered cheque fraud was estimated at  £ 6.2 millions. SOURCE: FRAUD FACTS -2006 APACS- UK This paper studies the various protections available to banks and customers when using cheques as opposed to cards, as method of payment. PROTECTION AVAILABLE TO CHEQUE PAYMENTS UNDER BILL OF EXCHANGE ACT, 1882, UK (BEA) AND CHEQUES ACT 1957 Under Bill of Exchange Act, 1882, under section 81 A, a non-transferable cheques has been defined as follows†   Ã¢â‚¬Å"81 A (1). Where as cheques is crossed and bears across its face the words ‘account payee’ or a/c either with or without the word ‘only’, the cheques shall not be transferable but shall only be valid as between the parties thereto. (2) A banker is not to be treated for the purpose of section 80 above as having been negligent by reasons only of his failure to concern himself with any purported endorsement of a cheque which under subsection (1) above or otherwise is not transferable. (Cheques Act, 1992). One risk associated with the cheques bearing forged or unauthorized endorsements’. However protection is available under the English Bills of exchange Act, (BEA, or the Act). Under BEA, a legitimate holder of a cheques payable to bearer attain a good title to the instrument overcoming thereby any adverse claim of ownership that might have been hold good against his predecessor. Accordingly, the payment by the drawee bank to those acquirers discharges the cheques as well as the drawer’s engagement thereon so as to permit the drawee bank to debit the drawee’s account. But this is not applicable to cheques payable to order. In the case of payable to order cheques, effect of an unauthorised or an absence of endorsement or forged endorsement shall have to be looked into under the circumstances of forged endorsements. One of the ways to prevent forged endorsement or loss due to stolen cheques is to use crossed cheques or cheques payable in account. Cheques crossing are available under the BEA, UK. The crossed cheques requires to deposit the cheques into account rather than payable to bearer does not reallocate the cheques theft losses but it minimizes the loss and thus benefits the party on whom the loss falls. Further the losses arose due to stolen cheques or loss cheques payable to bearer fall on the dispossessed owner under BEA. Thus under BEA , reallocation of loss away from dispossessed owner may not be successful in case of crossed cheques payable to bearer as the onerous shifted to bank for its negligence. If a bank has acted in good faith and it is protected under BEA for the payment made to open cheques to bearer.    In the case of crossed cheques, if the bank seeks protection, it should have acted without negligence and in good faith. Under BEA, if forged endorsement losses fall on the taker from the forger who is naturally a bank. Further, the cheques payable to the order under the BEA, loss reduction thus seems to be mainly advantageous to the collecting bank. Further the collecting bankers of the crossed cheques are protected under the BEA over forged endorsements as long as they acted in good faith and without negligence. Further under BEA, the drawee bank is protected and this shifts the reallocation of forged endorsement losses to the first innocent party prior to the collecting bank.   Where the one who grabbed the payment through a bank account was the conman, such innocent party is construed to be dispossessed owner. Thus the crossing has reassigned the loss to the dispossessed owner, thus excluding the collecting bank that took the cheque from the conman. Thus under BEA, protection is available to banking channel had they acted in good faith and without negligence even in case of crossed cheques .If an open or crossed stolen cheque has been collected by or paid to the conman , the loss is assigned to the dispossessed owner .Under UK laws , where a cheque is payable to order is collected or paid over a forged endorsement for or to a non-bank situated in the chain of title subsequent to the conman, loss is assigned to the non-bank from that of the conman. This is apart from of whether the cheque was collected for or paid to the innocent taker from the conman or someone obtaining title from the conman despite of crossing.   Where the cheque is crossed and it has to be paid into a bank account and then only it can be encashed as it will be convenient for the dispossessed owner to trace that person and assign the loss to him. Thus the crossing of cheque becomes more helpful to the true owner. However thus the innocent endorser has to bear the loss as the benefit is not in the reallocation of losses. The best example of the above is the Nigerian gangsters operating in UK and taking the gullible students who are in the poverty to carry out cheque fraud worth  £ 50 million a year. These Nigerians conman recruit poor students with promises of good cash reward for just providing the conman with their bank account particulars. By using stolen corporate cheque books, they then deposit huge amount of British pounds through the accounts. No sooner the account is credited with the collection amount from the fraudulent cheques, the account will be emptied before the firm or bank realizes what has happened. The major lion’s share goes to the conman and only a very meager amount goes to the innocent, poor student who has provided the bank account number to the conman. When the fraud comes to light due to alerting by the bank to the police, it is the poor, innocent student who will become the scapegoat. The conman mainly selects the students from Camden in North London where thousands of students from the capital’s universities congregate. Conman liberally offer them up to  £ 5000 for doing nothing. Then the conman approaches an insider who is working in the royal mail and induces them to steal a company’s cheque book. Then the conman visits the company office to collect the director’s signature from the dustbin and thus they scrupulously copy the same in writing the bogus cheques.   Thus the conman had a fortune by sharing a lion’s share in the booty leaving the innocent, poor account holder to face police and possible fraud investigation.[i] Banks and building society’s in UK from September 2006 onwards is not to accept the cheques that are issued in favour of the banks itself in a move to avoid frauds. Bank is to insist to issue the cheques payable to an individual or to include the individual’s name on the payee line after the name of the institution. This strategy is mainly designed to ensure that the money lands in the right account and to bring to an end to cheque fraud which reached to a height of  £46.2 million in 2004 which includes counterfeit and stolen cheques. This modification is being launched following a case in which an independent financial advisor informed his clients to draw cheques out to the financial institutions where the money was going to be invested. He then paid them in to his own account, rather than the customers account.[ii] Under the BEA , there is a provision with a bill containing words prohibiting transfer or indicating an intension that it should not be transferable and these instruments is termed as ‘ not negotiable’. As such these instruments can not be negotiated by the payee to another holder. In UK, an account payee or a/c payee and with or without the words only can be encashed only by the account holder and thus it can not be encashed other wise than by an endorsement. Further, under the BEA, the consequence of an unauthorised or forged assignment is similar to that of forged endorsement as both do not convey title. Under BEA, in there is no acceptance, the drawee can not be held liable on the instrument and it does not exclude in tort or in receipt of money provided elements of such liability are present. If the drawer has given sufficient notice well in advance informing the drawee about the forged endorsement and the remedy available to the drawer against drawee for the forged endorsement is under contract and this arises regardless of any particular provision of the BEA. Further under BEA , no remedies is specified for the misappropriation under forged endorsement but the injured can avail the common law remedies for the embezzlement of property in chattels generally rather than stipulating specific recourse to the true owner of misappropriated cheques. Further the loss of cheque does not forfeit the action on it under the BEA. Under BEA, no title is passed on under the forged endorsements and one who derives the title under forged endorsement can not enforce payments against a prior party to the forgery. Further no payment is made under due course so as to discharge the cheque and to preclude drawee’s liability against the drawer. Thus the original owner from whom the cheque was stolen and forged inherits the right to and on the cheque and he has a right to sue for the wrongful interference with his rights. Further under BEA, an endorser is barred from refuting the authenticity and promptness of all previous endorsements and at the time of endorsement, he had a good title and this denial will be advantageous for the holder in due course later. Further under BEA, the drawee bank can base its reliance on laws governing mistake and restitution for the payment made over a forged endorsement. Further, under BEA provisions, true owner may recover on the lost cheque from any party prior to the falsification till up to the drawer. Under BEA, cheques payable to fictitious or non existing persons is deemed to payable to the bearer. A collecting bank can not be held responsible for payment made to a thief if it is drawn on fictitious name and if they have acted in good faith which absolves the collecting from its liability. In Fok Cheong Shing Investments v. Bank of Nova Scotia, the president of the drawer who turned to be the authorised signatory of the company issued a cheque to a real person with an intention for misappropriation. The loss was allocated to the drawer under the fictious payee provision. Thus the drawee bank is being protected under the BEA if it has paid a cheque over forged endorsement in the ordinary course of business under good faith. Thus the statutory protection is extended to the collecting bank which collects in good faith and without negligence a cheque bearing a forged endorsement. S 60 of the BEA does not warrant that drawee bank should act with out negligence. However one may assume that a bank has to act without negligence in the ordinary course of business. The UK Review Committee on Banking Services Law and Practice considered provisions ss.60, 80 and s.1 of the Cheques Act 1957. The committed recommended to combine these provisions under single enactment so that statutory protection may be extended to a paying bank acting in ’good faith’ and without negligence. Both the s 82 and s.1 of the Bills of exchange (crossed cheques) Act were repealed by the Cheques Act 1957 in UK which mainly extended the protection to open cheques and other payments documents. In UK, the drawee is primarily liable to payment, the endorser is liable secondly and the drawer is the ultimately liable to payment upon dishonor. Not withstanding this, the drawer and the endorser may sign without recourse. The United Nations Convention on international Bills of exchange and International Bills of Exchange and International promissory notes , 1988( UNCITRAL Convention) specifies that the drawer may exclude his own liability for acceptance or deferment by an express stipulation in the Bill. Such stipulation will hold of use only where another party is or becomes liable on the bill. PROTECTION AVAILABLE TO PAYING BANK: Section 24 of the BEA states that a forged signature is no signature. In Brown v Westminster Bank (1964), the estoppel caused from the misleading facts from the client. In this case , the bank has reminded a old lady , the customer against the veracity of the signature as her signature was forged more than in 300 cheques and in turn she certified that the signature was her own.   When the bank was sued by her son later, it was held that bank was not liable and they were estopped from denying the genuineness of the cheques. In Tai Cotton Mills Ltd v Liu Chong Hing bank (1985), it was held in this case that a customer of a bank needs to check his bank statement to keep on watch that the forged cheques were processed. The bank’s express condition to the contrary in the contract with customer can absolve the banks from the wrongful debit. Like wise if a bank pays a cheque in breach of a mandate by oversight, it has the right of subrogation and the bank has the right to take the possession of a title or good that it effectively paid for. PROTECTION IN THE CASE OF CONVERSION: It is not necessary for the bank to check every endorsement on the cheque and it would be time consuming and onerous to do so. So as to assuage the liability of banks, BEA (1882) and the Cheques Act (1959) offer defense for the paying bank. Bank of Ireland v Hollicourt (Contracts) limited (2000) EWCA Cir 263. A suit was filed against a bank which continued to pay on cheques against the company’s bank account even after filing of a petition for bankruptcy. It was held that the bank had acted as an agent and didn’t have any beneficial interest and the legislation made the disposition void but that did not operate the way claimed. Roger Smith and Christopher Trimothy Esmond Hayward and Lloyds Bank TSB; Harvey Jones Ltd and Woolwich Plc (2000). Where a cheque has been misused falsely to change the name of the payee, then the piece of paper can not be termed as a cheque and an action for alteration against the collecting or paying bank will stand only as the nominal value of the paper and not as to the face value. As the material alteration was carried out with out assent of any one but the fraudster and under the bill is avoided save against a party consenting or making to the alteration. PRECAUTIONS TO BE OBSERVED WHILE WRITING A CHEQUE: Write clearly the name of person in whose favour your are writing a cheque with additional information like Dr, Er, his shop name or company name etc. From September 2006 on wards whenever you issue a cheque to UK building society or to a bank, add additional information other than the name of the bank or society like account no, bank branch name etc. To prevent fraudsters to add words in the empty blank space available in the written cheque, it is always better to draw a line through unused spaces. Don’t pre sign blank cheques and also try to fill all the details like full name, amount in figures and words and don’t issue undated cheques. Always issue ‘account payee only ‘crossed cheques’ to avoid any frauds. CREDIT CARD CHEQUES: These cheques have been issued as an additional facility on credit card accounts for the last 10 years in UK. These are similar to the normal bank account cheques and can be deployed for the same purpose. During 2004 , about 3.4m credit cheques have been issued which constitute a very little percentage (2%) as opposed to overall number of credit card in operation which totaled to 1.727 billion in the UK according to APACS , the UK payment association. The credit card cheques are likely to bounce in most of the cases if credit limit has been crossed. These credit card cheques are utilised for high value transactions ranging from  £ 850 as against  £ 58 for a UK credit card purchases and  £ 120 for payment of a personal cheque. In credit card cheques, the customer need not ask for the cheques from the credit card issuer but they are issued at the discretion of the card provider and there are different terms and conditions applicable to transaction done through credit cards cheques as compared with a credit card and this is being unaware by the most of the customers. One of the disadvantages is the fraud that is prevalent in the credit card cheques as the most of the issuer are forwarding it to their customers on discretionary basis. These credit card cheques are vulnerable to fraudulent activities as most of the customers do not aware that credit card cheques have been dispatched to them. In the case of these credit card frauds, lender has to bear the losses rather than customer. CREDIT CARD FRAUDS: Credit and debit card frauds cost  £ 400 m during 2004 and devise deployed by the fraudsters have become sophisticated.One of the remedy is to insure against the ID theft. Some insurance company offer it as free adds on with home insurance policy. One of the protection for the prevention of credit card frauds   is the introduction of new industry standard namely ‘Chip and Pin† which required implanting a microchip inside the credit and debit card and mandates that consumers key in a secrete four-digit personal identification number to complete a transaction using the card. As the result the consumers deceived by the fraudsters are on the decrease in UK. [i] Dan Evans, â€Å"Gang’s Pounds 50m stolen cheque racket ‘, Sunday Mirror, Jan, 12, 2003. [ii] â€Å"Banks put checks on Cheques in new bid to beat pounds 46 million fraud, The Birmingham post, December 8, 2005, page 24. â€Å"Check Your Balance before the Match.† The News Letter (Belfast, Northern Ireland) : 11 â€Å"Cheques in the Post-Mortem.† The Birmingham Post (England) 21 Jan. 2006: 27. Cheques to Be Stubbed Out. After 350 YEARS; Signed and Sealed.† The Mirror (London, England) 10 Nov. 2004: 1. â€Å"Fraud Bill Shock.† Evening Gazette (Middlesbrough, England) 31 Jan. 2006: 2. Ghost Workers Help Fraud to Soar.† Western Mail (Cardiff, Wales) 2 Feb. 2005: 6. â€Å"King of the Cons.† The Mirror (London, England) 11 Jan. 2005: 10. â€Å"Postman Given Asylum Plundered [Pounds Sterling] 20million.† The Daily Mail (London, England) 21 Dec. 2005: 17. â€Å"Store Bans Slowcoach Cheques to Speed Checkouts.† Western Mail (Cardiff, Wales) 3 Apr. 2006: 4. Sally Ramage Dabydeen, â€Å"Legal and Regulatory Frame work â€Å"iUniverse, 2004.

While There Is Much Hype About International Sporting Events Like the Fifa World Cup, Such Events in Fact Have Limited Value. Do You Agree

Now people are like to do sport. Not matter adult, children, man and woman also likes to do sports. Even if the work is very busy, or a lot of remedial classes also take the free time to do sports. This is our love of sport. Since ancient times, people are like sports. Then people love sport, they gradually formed a large-scale movement. Nowadays, there are two sports competition in the world largest. It is Olympic Games and FIFA World Cup. These international sporting will give many advantages to a country.Hold international sporting events like the FIFA World Cup will become many advantages for a country. It will become improve growth of economy who are hold international sporting, then create more job, increase the relationship of other countries, and increase the image of a country. The first advantage of holding international sporting events is it creates more job opportunities for to the country. International sporting events need many sports centers, athlete hostels, hotels, c ar parks, restaurants, and others. So, human resources are needed to build the building.People are also needed to work in the construction field, restaurant, and service. The country has host the international sporting must invite many workers to complete the competition. For example, hotels need many workers to service the tourist, restaurants need many waiter and chefs to service the tourist and to cook many delicious foods, transportation need many drivers like taxis, bus, private drivers, and others. Furthermore, human resources also need the guide to introduction their country. Hold the international sporting can become increase the relationship of other countries.It can exchange players to show their talent. They promote their countries players and then promote their culture. NBA is the example, it make many teams to invite many country’s players come to their country. So that can increase many people know their country. Then their country will increase the economic and crates more jobs to their commonwealth. Similarly, they can organize a competition about the international sporting. For example, FIFA World Cup, Olympic Games, Formula 1, Europe Cup, and others sports.After the competition, the host country will enjoy many benefits from this competition. It can improve the economy growth of their country. Then it can lead to many business deals from all the world. This is because many other countries get to are know about this their country’s economy. So other countries are confident to do business with the host country. Then they countries can form good relationships in business. Likewise, they also can easily make transactions. For example China is a big developing country. It just hosted the Olympic Games in 2008.Now it is a popular country in the world. At the same time, it is also a big brother in Asia for business. Moreover, the advantage of holding international sporting is improved growth of economy. After which country was hosted t he international sporting. There can improve the currency at the time. For example, many tourists come to your country travel must change the currency. Multi-national currency may come in to your country. After that, the currency in your country will be growth up at the time. IN 2008 China, after it was finished hosted the Olympic Games.After that, it improved growth of economy at the moment. Then, many tourists come to China for tourism. So, many tourists need change the currency after that just can use. In conclusion, the hold international sporting can enjoy many advantages. Otherwise, host international sporting may improve growth of economy and increase the image of a country. In future, many countries must try to host the international sporting. So, many countries just can increase the relationship of others country. Finally, there are many advantages of host international sporting events.

Cooperative learning Change of Leadership for Differentiated Education

Concerted larning refers to work done by pupil squads bring forthing a merchandise of some kind ( such as a set of job solutions, a research lab or undertaking study, or the design of a merchandise or a procedure ) , under conditions that satisfy five standards: ( 1 ) positive mutuality, ( 2 ) single answerability, ( 3 ) face to confront interaction for at least portion of the work, ( 4 ) appropriate usage of interpersonal accomplishments, and ( 5 ) regular self-assessment of squad operation. Extensive research has shown that comparative to traditional single and competitory manners of direction, decently implemented concerted larning leads to greater acquisition and superior development of communicating and teamwork accomplishments ( e.g. leading, undertaking direction, and struggle declaration accomplishments ) . Gregory ( 2008 ) The technique has been used with considerable success in all scientific subjects, including chemical science. The benefits of concerted acquisition are non automatic, nevertheless, and if amiss implemented, the method can make considerable troubles for teachers, most notably dysfunctional squads and pupil opposition or ill will to group work. This paper offers a figure of suggestions for organizing squads, fulfilling the five specifying standards of concerted acquisition, and minimising the jobs. Harmonizing to Gregory ( 2008 ) Teachers who have ne'er used the attack are advised to travel into it bit by bit instead than trying a all-out execution on their first attempt, and to increase the degree of execution in subsequent class offerings. To an increasing extent, they should see the larning benefits promised by the research, and as their expertness and assurance in implementing the method continue to turn, pupil ratings of the squad experience should better at the same time. Most si gnificantly, instructors who are successful in utilizing concerted acquisition in their categories will hold the satisfaction of cognizing that they have significantly helped fix their pupils for their professional callings. There are several grounds why concerted acquisition plants every bit good as it does. The thought that pupils learn more by making something active than by merely watching and listening has long been known to both cognitive psychologists and effectual instructors and concerted acquisition is by its nature an active method. Beyond that, cooperation enhances larning in several ways. Weak pupils working separately are likely to give up when they get stuck ; working hand in glove, they keep traveling. Strong pupils faced with the undertaking of explicating and clear uping stuff to weaker pupils frequently find spreads in their ain apprehension and make full them in. Students working entirely may be given to detain finishing assignments or jump them wholly, but when they know that others are numbering on them, they are motivated to make the work in a timely mode. The proved benefits of concerted acquisition notwithstanding, instructors who attempt it often encounter opposition and sometimes unfastened ill will from the pupils. Bright pupils complain about Begin held back by their slower teammates ; weak or unassertive pupils complain about being discounted or ignored in group Sessionss ; and bitternesss build when some squad members fail to draw their weight. Knowing and patient teachers find ways to cover with these jobs, but others become demoralized and revert to the traditional teacher-centered instructional paradigm, which is a loss both for them and for their pupils. Gregory ( 2008 ) However I believe concerted acquisition is more than merely inquiring pupil to acquire in a group and work on an assignment together. Most research workers and practicians of concerted larning emphasis that it is a formal instructional theoretical account in which instructors carefully design lessons and activities that are suited for usage by squads. These squads are little, stable, and heterogenous, and have been adequately prepared for working together. When utilizing squads in the schoolroom, I see faculty as holding to direct their attending to six different countries: climate-setting ; squad formation ; teambuilding ; concerted accomplishments development ; lesson design ; and classroom direction.Climate SettingWhile many of my pupils are enthused about the chance to larn with and from their equals, it is non uncommon for me to meet pupils who are loath to take part in any kind of group activities. So, how does one take a category of pupils whose feelings about concerted acquis ition scope from love through indifference to downright ill will and turn them into a community of scholars? The first ( but by no means the merely ) measure is to work on making a category clime that encourages cooperation. My suggestions include: aˆ? Communicate clear outlooks to pupils about Cooperative acquisition on the first twenty-four hours of category. I recommend that you inform pupils that you plan to utilize concerted acquisition, why you use it, and what it means to them. Will they be graded on category engagement? What happens if they come to category unprepared? It ‘s peculiarly of import to allow pupils cognize about your policies on group classs. It ‘s besides a good thought to admit that some people would prefer to work entirely, and to indicate out the activities and assignments they ‘ll be working on independently.aˆ? Problem SetsStudents complete some or most of their prep assignments in squads. The squads are encouraged to include merely the names of existent participants on the solution set that they manus in. The pupils are ab initio disinclined to go forth anyone ‘s name away, but finally they get tired of allowing nonparticipants ( â€Å" hitchhikers, † in concert ed acquisition idiom ) acquire good classs for work they did n't make and get down to exclude names, at which point many hitchhikers-unhappy about acquiring nothings on assignments-start cooperating. The squad gets a class for the assignment, but finally the public presentation of each squad member should be assessed and the consequences used to set the mean squad prep class individually for each squad member. In decision there are many route blocks that may happen throughout the journey to cooperative acquisition. Not all pupils take their duties earnestly plenty. Many feel that their slack will be picked up by the others in the group. Some pupils may be excessively strong of leaders and smother the parts of the other members of the squad. Conflict is a natural byproduct of cooperation. When pupils are asked to work together, it is with the purpose that they will each supply a differing position and or sentiment. When differing sentiments are joined together to make one merchandise, struggle is certain to originate. Conflict can be a really healthy springboard to larning. When pupils dialogue and debate their sentiments they might reenforce their thoughts or disregard them. The ability to listen and be flexible to new positions is perfectly indispensable to the success of a group. Delegating functions may besides assist to ease the instability of attempt. The pupils who do n't lend adequate attempt should foremost be encouraged by their groups. If this proves unsuccessful, the teacher should step in and mediate. It is perfectly unjust to penalize a group for the ineffectualness of one member. Students should make everything possible to stay a concerted and cohesive unit, but if all efforts fail they should be allowed a opportunity to reconstruct a new unit. It should besides ne'er be the duty of the strongest member of the squad to transport the others. Teachers can non presume that all group struggles should be resolved entirely. Classroom mold of effectual group work and role-playing of struggle state of affairss should be directed by the instructor. However many old ages of research and legion surveies can non be denied concerted acquisition is an effectual method for understanding and retaining information. Industry experts can non be ignored when they province that being able to work efficaciously in a squad is an imperative accomplishment. Concerted acquisition is non a replacing for the schoolroom instructor. It is intended to complement the direct direction by doing pupils to be confident minds and active scholars.

Advanced Interpersonal Skills Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Advanced Interpersonal Skills - Essay Example Before the commencement of the session on advanced interpersonal skills, I was unaware of exactly what kind of person I am but with the help of this session I learnt a lot about myself and my personality. I learnt that there are many different types of personality tests and also many types of categories for the various personalities. I learnt that it is important to write diaries as by writing all thoughts in the mind comes out on the paper and one is in a better position to understand things. The session on MBTI had been a very interesting session during the course of advanced interpersonal skills. My personality type in the MBTI test was INFJ. INFJs allow a person to detect their talents and constantly work upon grooming their talents. My personality and nature reflects upon the fact that I am highly concerned about relationships and society as a whole (Brown and Reilly, 2009). I aim high in life and I want my life experiences to be extraordinary. Just getting a routine job would not be of high interest to me, I want my life to be adventurous and a continuous learning experience down my career path. Since I am strongly interested in the field of marketing, I would be able to demonstrate creativity and innovation in my work and skills (Managers, 2006). I have built up some strong principles and values in life and I work upon standing by my values so that I feel satisfied and content with whatever I do in life. I possess leadership qualities and hence aim towards a job in which my skills and abilities will be used to the optimum level. The job should be one that will allow me to implements my values and principles in a comfortable manner. My visions are intuitive and I know that I can produce excellent results if I believe in any particular task. My MBTI personality testing results were INFJ and this truly reflects upon my

Computers as Enhancement to the Early Childhood Learning Environment Essay

Computers as Enhancement to the Early Childhood Learning Environment - Essay Example They can use computers as educational tools rather than just toys for kids. Not only would they satisfy a child's curiosity, but they can guide and supervise the child in doing so. Specht et. al. (2002) conducted a survey in Canadian cities. They sent questionnaires to 196 Canadian educators. They wanted to assess the knowledge that the educators had about computers and what the educators feel about introducing computers in a child's learning environment. Overall, educators thought that the idea was good, and that they needed more knowledge regarding computers. The enhancement of children's learning environment using computers also relies heavily on the type of software that will be installed to the computer. The knowledge of the teachers and the developmental level of the children are also factors in the success of this activity. Computer programs that a child will be exposed to should be chosen with great care. Developmentally appropriate software should be appropriate for the age group. The correct software should be chosen with respect to the typical development stages of children in that age. The software should also be socially and culturally appropriate, which would be based on learning experiences when using the computer. Also, the software should be individually appropriate. ... oftware that can easily be controlled and manipulated by children so that the adults may allow them to use the computer independently which would support learning. Edwards also suggested that instead of containing violent images, the software should provide instructions clearly and should also contain non-violent animation that would capture the child's imagination. Edwards indicated that developmentally appropriate programs should also have a visual message and an auditory direction.Given developmentally appropriate software, a child who uses a computer would develop cognitive skills such as problem solving. When using a computer, a child will also try to focus on what he is doing, and will also try to concentrate. Computers would be a great enhancement to a learning environment. The right software would provide children entertainment while teach them about certain things. Images and sound are effective reinforcements in teaching a concept to a child. Edwards (2006) showed that computers give children the opportunity to take control, that there is actually an active engagement happening when a child is using a computer. When a child learns to use a computer, he may develop his independence. Gian Arnold Catangay, a six year old, knows how to use a computer. Whenever he has time he clicks on the browser and types www.pokemon.com on the address tab. He does this without the help of anyone. Some researchers fear that computers would isolate a child. But inside a classroom, a child who uses a computer may have one friend by his side or a many friends behind him. Children will also practice social skills like sharing and taking turns. Being exposed to a technology such as a computer at such an early age would not only help a child in learning, but

Hills Like White Elephants by Ernest Hemingway Essay - 1

Hills Like White Elephants by Ernest Hemingway - Essay Example Hemingway does not use the crucial word in any part of the story, but the context, dialogues and the behavioral pattern of the two main characters would make it clear that they are planning to travel by train to Madrid to abort their child. The most intriguing aspect of the story is its terse narrative structure that leads the readers slowly to the core of the issue dealt with. The third person narrative serves the functional purpose of describing the mise en scene and filling in the unavoidable details of action. Each word has its weight and significance in the story for the same reason. Moreover, the story makes use of symbolic representations through every image that appears in it. The protagonists have a few drinks in the train station in the Ebro River valley of Spain and speak about the hills in the background, the drinks, their shared life, the abortion and their future. The varying viewpoints of the man and woman regarding the abortion are part cleverly revealed through their conversation and action. Hemingway presents a fragment from the life of the protagonists, but this throws light on the effects of time and space on the quality of their life. They are presumably the representatives of the ‘roaring twenties, who led a hedonistic life after the First World War. The crumbling social valued and family structure have led to a freewheeling life where men and women lived for the moment, and tried to get rid of commitments and responsibilities. The tension felt through the curt dialogue shows how the attitudes to such a life differ drastically between the man and the girl. The man is obviously distracted by the prospective because he is forcing the girl to do it. He forcefully brings the subject during the conversation and says, â€Å"That’s the only thing that bothers us. It’s the only thing that’s made us unhappy†. He neglects the attempt by the girl to bring to his notice that

Slavery in Civil War Era Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Slavery in Civil War Era - Coursework Example These came to be known as the Confederate States whose members were slave-owning states, and this led to the prominence of two men whose views on slavery were entirely opposite of one another. The first is Abraham Lincoln who was among the biggest proponents of the eradication of slavery in all the states within the union, and the other is Jefferson Davis who was a principal proponent of the institution of slavery and believed that it was a necessary part of the economy at the time. These two men shall be discussed in this paper in relation to their positions on the institution of slavery. The institution of slavery lasted for over three hundred and fifty years in what is today the United States until it was finally abolished in the eighteen sixties. It was one of the most brutal and dehumanizing institutions in the annals of the human race with the greatest victims being the African slaves. African slaves were imported like commodities from Africa to work in the large white-owned pl antations because they could withstand those European diseases, which normally killed the Indian slaves. Moreover, the ability of the Africans to work in the harsh conditions of a hot sun was seen to be an added advantage for their conversion to slaves. Europeans used various means to justify their enslavement of Africans, and one of these was that the bible stated that they were the children of Ham and that they had been cursed to be slaves to the other races that were descended from Noah. Another justification was the belief that Africans were subhuman; such that they were inferior to the white race and that because of this it was justifiable to treat them in any way one wanted because they had no human feelings at all. These highly mistaken concepts ensured that slavery continued, and many Africans were brought to America and forced to undertake tasks under extremely harsh and brutal conditions for the sake of making a profit for their masters. It is for the purpose of ending thi s institution that the American Civil War took place.

Compair Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Compair - Essay Example Khafre also refers to a block cipher. The name Khafre also refers to  kefren  (a pharaoh of Egypt of the fourth dynasty). This pharaoh had his  capital  based at Memphis. The statue of Khafre is made of  stone  that is exceptionally  stylish  or  smooth. Several lines that penetrate deep into the stone  depict  the  texture  of his skirt and headdress. The forms of both bird and  man  faces are remarkably  exact  in  proportion  and their carvings are of a true nature as compared to the Guedea’s  statue (Pickering 43). A closer look at the khafre  statue  reveals more muscle definition and the firmly fixed feet. The statue of Gudea and that of Khafre are different in  purpose  or there functionality. The statue of Gudea represents a  ruler  in the temple while that of Khafre represents the pharaohs. The two statues are also different in terms of the  period  they were created. The statue of Gudea represents a  leader  who ruled in the temple. The statue of Khafre represents pharaohs who were political leaders and not proponents of any faith. The statues are similar in the  period  of their  creation  that is 2900-2600 BCE (Pickering 54). The statues were also created by the Sumerians, which makes another similarity. The statues also represented rulers of two  different  territories. Parthenon is the allegory of Greece and Athens. Parthenon is regarded to be the perfect temple ever built. It also happens to be one of the highly known and recognized memorials in the universe. The temple is outstanding because of its impressive position in appearance on the Acropolis. Secondly, Parthenon’s architectural civilizations and its reflection of the Greek culture over hundreds of years contribute to its recognition as a symbol of western civilization by historians and philosophers. The term Parthenon is derived from a Greek word (Parthenon’s) which means virgin. In the Greek culture of the building, there were two main styles namely, the

Executive Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 14

Executive Summary - Essay Example teve Jobs; decline in share prices; and emergence of stiffer competitors offering cheaper products; among others, investors and spectators were gleaming at any possibility that Apple’s future performance could be on the decline. First, to counter competitors’ move of producing relatively cheaper alternatives to the iPhone, it was revealed that â€Å"Apple could produce an iPhone for less than $150 to broaden its appeal† (Has Apple peaked? par. 7). This is a viable strategy given that competitors have already launched several alternatives to the smartphone at significantly affordable prices; especially in emerging markets, like China. Secondly, Horace Dediu, a spokesperson from Asymco, a research firm, was cited to disclose that â€Å"it would be a mistake to think Apple is resting on its laurels† (Has Apple peaked? par. 13). His proof was the soaring of capital expenditure of Apple which is an indication that it is producing a new product to be launched in the market. Third, the legal battle Apple has encountered with Samsung was noted to be indicative of it being on the defensive stance. I am convinced that any organization threatened by competitors in terms of product patent would do the same thing. As a competitor, like Samsung, the apparent increase in capital expenditure that indicates that Apple is concocting a new innovative product should spur me to increase my research capabilities and try to find out from all possible avenues what these technological gadgets could be. Likewise, I could set my product engineers to design new, creative, and more innovative gadgets that would potentially be seen as blockbuster products and could be purchased at relatively cheaper amounts than what Apple normally offers. If I am personally involved in Apple as an employee, I would definitely by knowledgeable of any possible new product innovation or future product launches that are being designed. As such, I could validate that Apple could simple be at the steady state

Nursing Informatics- evidence-based practice and technology Article

Nursing Informatics- evidence-based practice and technology - Article Example Health information technology has made it possible for medical researchers to create a database of information gleaned from the research. It is possible to use health information technology to search online journals for evidence-based practice on how to optimize the flow of patients in and out the emergency rooms. Evidence-based practices that are used to optimize patient flow in other hospitals can be accessed via different databases (Thede, 2008). The flow of patients in the emergency rooms is a key component of quality care in any emergency department. Health Information Technology supports evidenced based practice by allowing medical practitioners to publish research results in online databases. Medical professionals from different places can access these databases (Thede, 2008). Health Information Technology has made it possible to disseminate information fast, which helps in improving efficiency in evidence-based

Marijuana Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 1

Marijuana - Research Paper Example The drug can be smoked just like cigarette or smoked through a long pipe (bong). It can also be placed in cigars emptied of tobacco (blunts) and sometimes mixed with other drugs (Bovasso, 2001). While two states have legalized its use and 20 other states accept its use for certain medical purposes, the federal government still holds on to its consideration of marijuana as schedule 1 drug, which is a drug with higher potential of abuse and no acceptable medicinal use or no prescribed safety use of the substance (Rey & Tennant, 2002). Marijuana is an addictive drug and the user will always tend to desire more and more of it, in the event that the users stops using the drug after a long term, the person shows signs that exhibited by any other drug. They include lack of sleep, irritability, decreased appetite, frequent anxiety and craving for more drugs. The physiological responses makes it difficult for the person to stop smoking (Pope & Yurelun, 1996). Problems associated with marijuana dependency includes motivational syndrome, memory impairment, weight gain, increased risk for cancer, lower sperm counts and lower testosterone levels for men, increased risk of infertility for women, psychological dependence requiring more of the drug to get the same effect. Marijuana serves as a barrier against self-awareness, and users may not be able to learn key developmental skills (Block & Ghoneim, 1993). Since 2008, primary admission of youth rehabilitation centers have registered steady increase of 20 percent out of which 68% are marijuana addicts. Even though there is no prescribed dosage for treating marijuana addiction, behavioral initiatives have been used effectively in almost all the situation to handle the problem, these includes cognitive behavioral therapy and motivational initiatives such as giving reward to victims who have managed

Stress in Nursing Essay Example for Free

Stress in Nursing Essay One of the definitions of stress offered in literature is: Stress is the psychological and physical state that results when perceived demands exceed an individuals ability to cope with them. The profession of nursing has thrived over the past century into a respected and necessary member of the health care arena. However, the future of the profession, and more imminently, patient care and the health of nurses, may be significantly impacted by repeated challenges in the contemporary era where current levels of STRESS and burnout are contributing to organizational problems, burnout, and attrition. According to the article The effect of stress on health and its implications for nursing, stress is seen as a negative feeling affecting peoples health either physically and/or psychologically. However, stress is a normal part of life and considered necessary to increase functional capacity. This article identifies and discusses the effect of stress on health and its relationship to nursing. First, according to the authors of the article, the effects of stress on health and its implications for nursing, stress affects people in different ways and is recognized as a cause of physical and _PSYCHOLOGICAL_ ill health. For example, Psychological reactions to stress produce emotional responses ranging from exhilaration, when an event is stressful but manageable, to anxiety, anger, discouragement and depression when an event appears to be unmanageable. In addition, _PHYSIOLOGICAL_ responses refer to the internal responses within the body that regulate physiological processes in an optimal way to adapt to the demands of the work environment. Therefore, physiological response to stress causes the bodys metabolism to increase in preparation for expending energy on physical action, thereby curtailing unessential activities such as digestion, saliva and mucus production which over a long period can be harmful. The short-term symptoms of stress include headache, muscular tension, chest pains, indigestion, palpitations; disturbed sleep and increased susceptibility to respiratory  infections. Second point in this article discusses stress relationship to nursing. The most important resource in any organization is the employee; therefore maintaining and supporting their health is vital to ensure their ability to work, to keep standards and continuously improve standards of care. According to the article the effects of stress on health and its implications for nursing, stress may also affect the wellbeing of the nurse with a positive correlation between stress and mood disturbance with common effects including: anxiety and irritability, depression and mood swings. Also, this article states that nurses express dissatisfaction regarding lack of autonomy, and practice a coping mechanism to reduce stress termed avoidance behaviors. This avoidance behavior may result in a loss of the caring element of nursing by giving only a clinical response to those in their care. Stress can have a significant impact on individual nurses and their ability to accomplish tasks. More specifically, poor decision making, lack of concentration, apathy, decreased motivation and anxiety may impair job performance, creating uncharacteristic errors. All of which can directly contribute towards absenteeism, decreased work performance, and ultimately, burnout. The information given in the article was found to be factual. The facts that the author used to support the argument are issued guidance from National Institute of Health and Care Excellence (NICE) (2009), Health and Safety Executive (HSE) (2007), and The American Nurses Association (2005). However, I found that the information given in the article is faulty because the information that the author is giving is a generalization from the literature and other author findings. There isnt any bias, propaganda or stereotyping. The author is not backing up his/her information with any studies. After I read this article, I think the effect on the general public specially nurses and other healthcare professionals will be very positive. This article inform about the effects of stress in health; therefore the general public, nurses and other healthcare professionals are going to be more  perceptive about their health and the impact that stress could cause when they delivering care to others. Furthermore, some recommendations the author suggests in this article are that shift nurses who have family care-giving responsibilities at home should be encouraged to avoid working consecutive 12-hour shifts and a special focus is required to concentrate on limiting the physical and psychological workloads that may significantly increase physiological strain on ageing nurses. Also, the author suggests to promote wellbeing among older staff nurses, nurse managers may consider providing flexible shift hours, ergonomic modifications, wellness programmers, and transferring older nurses fro m bedside nursing to mentoring younger nurses. Finally, my reaction about this article isnt surprising. Today, the number of medical lawsuit for negligence and malpractice is increasing, and it has to do a lot with stress management among health care professionals. For example, nurses are in constant tension. A splash of contaminated body fluid, a needle stick incident, lifting patients heaviest than them, etc., could jeopardize their life; therefore nurses not only have mental fatigue but also physical. As a consequence, errors and poor delivery of care can occur.

History of the Japanese Samurai

History of the Japanese Samurai The Samurai: Warrior and Ruler of Ancient Japan Few countries have a warrior tradition as long and exciting as Japan. It is a tradition found in the Samurai, the loyal and self-sacrificing knight of ancient Japan. The Samurai is a valiant warrior who can both appreciate the beauty of nature in that of a rose blossom but will also kill or die for his master in an instant. This well-rounded warrior was the ruling class of Japan for almost seven hundred years. He fought for control of his country and to keep Japan free from outside influences. (Turnbull 1) This aristocratic warrior class arose during the 12th century wars between the Taira and Minamoto clans and was consolidated in the Tokugawa period. Samurai were privileged to wear two swords, and at one time had the right to cut down any commoner who offended them. They cultivated the martial virtues, indifference to pain or death, and unfailing loyalty to their overlords. Samurai were the dominant group in Japan. Under the Tokugawa shogunate, the samurai were removed from direct control of the villages, moved into the domain castle towns, and given government stipends. They were encouraged to take up bureaucratic posts. The Hagakure, has been dubbed the book of the samurai. It was written after a century of peace around 1716. It came to be the guide of samurai ethics until the end of the feudal period. Its short passages reflect and outline the qualities that make a samurai. Yamamoto Tsunetomo expresses in the hagakure the framework and mindset of being a samurai. â€Å"Although it stands to reason that a samurai should be mindful of the Way of the samurai, it would seem that we are all negligent. Consequently, if someone were to ask, ‘what is the true meaning of the Way of the Samurai?’ the person who should be able to answer promptly is rare. This is because it has not been established in one’s mind beforehand. From this, one’s unmindfulness of the Way can be known. Negligence is an extreme thing.† (Wilson, 17) â€Å"The Way of the Samurai is found in death. When it comes to either/or, there is only the quick choice of death. It is not particularly difficult. Be determined and advance. To say that dying without reaching one’s aim is to die a dog’s death is the frivolous way of sophisticates. When pressed with the choice of life or death, it is not necessary to gain one’s aim. We all want to live. And in large part we make our logic according to what we like. But not having attained our aim and continuing to live is cowardice. This is a thin dangerous line. To die without gaining one’s aim is a dog’s death and fanaticism. There is no shame to this. This is the substance of the Way of the Samurai. If by setting one’s heart right every morning and evening, one is able to live as though his body were already dead, he gains freedom in the Way. His whole life will be without blame, and he will succeed in his calling. (Wilson, 17) The samurai had extreme religious ideals. One samurai in particular, Tsunetomo, he began to despair of ever gaining a position as a retainer, and her began to visit a man who was to have no small influence on his life. This was the Zen Buddhist priest Tannen (? – 1680), a man of unbending integrity and will, who had resigned his post as head priest at the major Nabeshima temple as a protest against the death sentence of another priest, and when recalled, refused to return. Zen Buddhism and the samurai had been closely related since the thirteenth century in Japan, when the Hojo regents had discovered that its vitality and rejection of life as an object of special craving had much to offer the warrior. Tannen had his own ideas concerning the relationship of Zen and the warriors. â€Å"He declares that religious matters are for old men, and if young samurai learn about Buddhism it will only bring them disaster, for they will begin to look at the world from two sets of values ra ther than one.† (Wilson, 13) The warriors of early Japan bore only a passing resemblance to the later samurai. Weaponry and armor were of a distinctly Chinese flavor, and the earliest warriors carried shields, a device evidently out of vogue even before the Heian period. Some of our knowledge of the weapons and protection the early Japanese warrior carried comes from artifacts excavated from the tombs constructed in the 4th and 5th centuries to house departed royalty. Another, just as valuable resource are the haniwa, which were clay statues evidently used as grave markers. A good number of these haniwa depict warriors, and these provide us some insight into the nature of ‘home-grown’ Japanese armor of the time. The horse was imported to Japan sometime in the 4th or 5th century, and quickly became a valuable commodity. Also brought over from the continent were Keiko, or suits of lamellar scaled armor. This type, which is traditionally associated with horsemen, provided the foundation from which the classic patterns of samurai armor construction would build. Just as important is the samurai’s weaponry is the code of ethics by which they lived by which is known as the code of Bushido. This term refers to the moral code principals that developed among the samurai class of Japan, on a basis of national tradition influenced by Zen and Confucianism. The first use of the term apparently occurred during the civil war period of the 16th century; its precise content varied historically as samurai standards evolved. Its one unchanging ideal was martial spirit, including athletic and military skills as well as fearless facing of the enemy in battle. Frugal living, kindness and honesty were also highly regarded. Like Confucianism, Bushido required filial piety; but, originating in the feudal system, it also held that supreme honor was to serve one’s lord unto death. If these obligations conflicted, the samurai was bound by loyalty to his lord despite the suffering he might cause to his parents. The final rationalization of Bushido thought occurred during the Tokugawa period, when Yamaga Soko equated the samurai with the Confucian â€Å"superior man† and taught that his essential function was to exemplify virtue to the lower classes. Without disregarding the basic Confucian virtue, benevolence, Soko emphasized the second virtue, righteousness, which he interpreted as â€Å"obligation† or â€Å"duty†. This strict code of honor, affecting matters of life and death, demanded conscious choice and so fostered individual initiative while yet reasserting the obligations of loyalty and filial piety. Obedience to authority was stressed, but duty came first even if it entailed violation of statue law. In such an instance, the true samurai would prove his sincerity and expiate his crime against the government by subsequently taking his own life. By mid-19th century, Bushido standards had become the general ideal, and the legal abolition of the samurai class in 1871 made Bushido even more the property of the entire nation. In the public education system, with the emperor replacing the feudal lord as the object of loyalty and sacrifice, Bushido became the foundation of ethical training. As such, it contributed both to the arise of Japanese nationalism and to the strengthening of wartime civilian morale up to 1945. The term â€Å"Samurai† means those who serve. These mystical knights served many functions in Japanese society. During time of war, they were the masters of the battlefield. In peace they were the administrators and the aristocrats. As statesmen, soldiers, and businessmen, former samurai took the lead in building modern Japan. The Japanese warrior, known as the samurai, has played a significant role in Japans history and culture throughout the centuries. Their ancestors can be traced back to as far as can be remembered. Some stories have become mysterious legends handed down over the centuries. In this report you will learn who the samurai were, their origins as we know them, how they lived and fought and their evolution to today. It will be clear why the samurai stand out as one of the most famous group of warriors of all times. Looking back in time, the first Japanese battles recorded are in the first few centuries AD. At this time Japanese warriors went across the sea to Korea to help one kingdom battling two rival kingdoms. Four hundred men set out and fought on foot carrying their bows, spears and swords. They were quickly beaten by warriors attacking on horseback. They probably had never seen an attack like that before, with horses being ridden. Even though there were horses in Japan they had not been used for riding or fighting, but to help in carrying and pulling goods. In the next century, however, there is evidence that horses were being ridden and used in warfare by warriors who would later be called samurai (History Channel). The term samurai was first used in the 10th century and means â€Å"those who serve†. In the beginning it stood for men who guarded the capital for the Emperor, some where used as tax collectors. Later the word grew to include any military man who served a powerful landlord, almost like a police force for that time. They would go around the countryside on horseback collecting taxes from the peasants, often this was in the form of rice. This money helped the Emperor pay for his lavish life style. The word, samurai, quickly spread and was respected (and maybe feared a little) for the men it represented. The noblemen depended on the strength of the samurai. Since their power and wealth was directly related to how much land they owned, the noblemen kept small armies of samurai to protect their property from thieves and invaders. Eventually many noble families joined together to form clans that became more powerful than the emperor, who was the traditional head of the Japanese government (How Samurai Work 11). In the 12th century the two most powerful clans were the Minomoto and the Taira. The two came to battle in 1160 with the Taira winning. Twenty years later in 1180 those Minomotos who had escaped death (they were children during the first attack) led a new attack that turned into a war that lasted five years and was called the Gempei War. The Minamotos won, and the emperor made Minamoto Yoritomo shogun, the head of the military. Yoritomo however wanted more and took all power away from the emperor and made himself dictator. At this time the samurai gained power, through land given to them by the new shogun. Their rise in status was beginning. The battles that were fought during The Gempei War were very important in the history of the samurai. They set a new and honorable standard for all samurai to live by. These standards would last throughout the existence of the samurai warrior. The Gempei War provided a role model for Japanese samurai’s courageous and noble behavior (Turnbull 14). Almost all the important characteristics attributed the samurai culture came out of the Gempei war; â€Å"Archery, hand-to-hand fighting, undying loyalty to one’s lord and the tremendous tradition of ritual suicide all have key passages and proof texts in the tales of the Gempi War†(Turnbull 15). The samurai had an unwritten code of honor called the bushido. Bushido means â€Å"way of the warrior† (History of the Samurai 3). This provided them with a code to help show them how to live and conduct themselves at home and in battle. One of the most important duties of the samurai was their loyalty to their lord. The samurai would defend their lord until the death. Revenge was also central in the samurai’s life and if someone had killed their master or attacked their master’s honor revenge must be gotten. The same vengeance was given if they themselves or their family were disrespected or defeated. Not just anyone could become a samurai warrior. You had to be the child of a samurai, being born into this class was a privilege. The samurai were not all rich, in fact their wealth was judged on the amount of Koku (which is the amount of rice that the fields produced). Other things like the size of the samurai’s house were based upon the wealth and rank of the samurai. There were also strict traditions to be followed for a young samurai. When a samurai was born, he would be given a small sword charm to wear on his belt. When the boy is five he gets his first haircut and begins to learn martial arts. At age seven he receives his first wide trousers called hakama. When the young samurai is fifteen he goes through a ceremony called gembuku where the boy becomes a man. He then receives his adult name, his adult haircut, and his first real sword and armor. Most boys would be taught combat skills by their father and eventually as he got older he would be taught by a local sensei. Those boys from wealthier families were expected to be educated men and may be sent to an academy where they would study literature and the arts along with martial arts. The training of the samurai for battle was intensive. There was more than just physical training involved. Strong mental concentration and focus were necessary to channel their energies before battle. The samurai warrior would spend endless hours practicing a set of complex battle movements called kata. â€Å"This practice started slowly at first increasing speed, until they became effortless and perfect. The movements were based on strategies of attack, defense, and counterattack† (Gaskin Hawkins 73). However, the only way these young samurais would ever gain experience is to take part in actual battle. So the sons of the samurai would follow their fathers into battle to test their newly learned fighting techniques. The samurai were also known for having a psychic awareness of the world around them in addition to their great skill. This is something practiced from an early age as well. An example of this keen awareness is seen in the story of three brothers told by their father. The father decided to test the ability of his three sons. He placed a vase on top a door so that it would fall when someone entered. The youngest son entered the room and he cut the vase in half with his sword before it hit the ground. The father’s response was, â€Å"This son has a long way to go.† Then he called for his middle son, this son caught the vase right above his head. This time his father’s response was that, â€Å"he is strong and improving but still has much to learn.† Finally, the oldest was called into the room, when he reaches for the door he immediately feels the weight of the vase. He slides the door open a crack and catches the vase and walks in. His father replies, â€Å" This son is doing well.† (Gaskin Hawkins 75). Their goal for perfections and their training and dedication were endless. The samurai is famous for his sword and it is one his most prized possessions. There are two main swords, one called the katana and the other the wakizashi. The wakizashi is worn on his belt at all times and a shorter blade of the two that was used in battle. The katana is the longer curved sword that was the samurai’s main weapon. The sword is given to a samurai at birth and placed next to that samurai when he dies. The samurai would take the sword everywhere he went, even to bed. It was treated with great respect and most would have been passed down from generation to generation. The process for making each sword from iron and steel is long and tedious requiring many steps and much patience. When finished a decorative handle would be added. The sword makers were respected and treated with almost reverence for the job they performed. â€Å"Like an artist the master sword maker would often sign his work (Gaskins Hawkins 10). This sword would be the difference between life an d death for many samurai. The 1500s began as time known as the Period of Warring States. This term was borrowed from the Chinese even though Japan was battling between families and clans, and not states. The leader of the clan called himself an ashigaru. which means great names. Only the strongest clan could survive these battles and the daimyo would do anything to win. The powerful daimyos had large armies made up of foot soldiers called ashigaru. During this time there was also a big change in how the samurai fought. In addition to using the traditional bows they were introduced to guns for the first time. First the guns came from European traders and were made in China, but it didn’t take long for the Japanese to start manufacturing their own weapons. (Turnbull 19). The samurai’s armor was one of the most elaborate and unique creations of their time. Today they are seen as works of art. Their armor was made from lamellar armor which took small metal plates and fastened them together and covered with a lacquer to make them waterproof. The outside of the armor was very colorful and sewn and covered with silk and leather designs. There were two types of armor, one called yori, which was heavier and used for riding on horseback. The other was called do-maru this was lighter and more practical for the foot soldiers. Both allowed for the samurai to have flexibility to move able to use their weapons and move in battle. This armor covered the entire body from samurai’s helmet to his chest protector and panels protecting his hips, arms and legs. One interesting fact is the about the kote. It is an armored sleeve only worn on the left arm so that the right arm would be free for the samurai to shoot his bow. Even when the bow was no longer us ed for battles this type of armor was seen as honoring a sense of tradition (How Samurai Work 5). The samurai’s helmet was also very important. It provided heavy duty protection to the head and neck. They also wore an â€Å"iron face mask, which might represent demons, ghosts, or barbarians† (Gaskin Hawkins 71) to help intimidate the enemy. An older warrior might want to use the face of a younger warrior so no one would know his age. The heavy duty neck covering helped in battles, and also helped prevent beheadings. Another example of samurai pride and courage is the ritual of burning incense in his helmet before battle. This was done so if he was defeated and beheaded he would leave behind a pleasant scent. Another example of their legendary bravery was in 1281 when Genghis Khan (leader of the Mongols out of Asia) attempted to invade Japan. But, because of the brave samurai and a well timed storm called a kamikaze, they were destroyed along with their ships. The word kamikaze means â€Å"winds of the gods†, but after that day it took on another meaning to include, destroying an enemy. Even in 1945 the term kamikaze pilot was used for the Japanese pilots that attacked the American fleet at Pearl Harbor. This victory against the Mongols was another added to the list of samurai’s brave and notable victories (Gaskin Hawkins 28). To the samurai, their pride went hand in hand with their honor and heritage. One example of this is when one samurai would challenge another to battle. It was tradition at this time for each samurai to speak publicly the names of all his ancestors, along with their accomplishments in battle ( some stories became embellished over time). This showed the deep pride and respect they held for his ancestors. (Turnbull 47). By the 14th century a samurai’s lineage had gotten quite long and just reciting your ancestors was difficult. The family pedigree was so important it was written down to be kept safe at all cost. An example of this devotion is when a samurai’s house caught fire and one samurai volunteered to go in and get the family tree that was written on a banner. â€Å"After the fire they found the samurai laying dead on his stomach, when they turned him over they found he had cut his stomach open and put the family tree inside to protect it from the flames† (Tur nbull 53). This is another example of their devotion to their family and to duty. The ancestors of the samurai were very much involved in the present life of the samurai. Every year during the Bon Festival they would be welcomed back through religious ceremonies. These ceremonies showed a deep appreciation felt toward their ancestors. They felt great gratitude for who they were, this included their name and their status. There were even rituals held before battles to bring the ancestors to help (Turnbull 48). The death of the samurai was treated with the same respect and honor as was his life. Seppuku is the word used for suicide by cutting open the stomach (also known as hari kiri). Seppuku was performed with a dagger. To the samurai warrior seppuku was something to be honored and respected. It could also bring back honor to him and his family if he had been beaten in battle or disgraced. This took incredible bravely and was extremely painful. Often a friend of the samurai’s would to end his pain by cutting off his head. (History Channel). This could also be something planned out ahead of time or done quickly during battle. Nitta Yoshisada is one of the most famous stories of a samurai’s death in 1336. Going into battle one day he was worried, the battle was difficult and he had to lead his men through rice fields. Yoshida went charging in, despite a heavy attack of soldiers and arrows. His horse was hit and fell down pinning him underneath. He had no time or way to reach his stomach to perform seppuku so they say he cut off his own head. This is just one of many extreme acts of seppuku over the many years of the samurai. As clans all over Japan dispersed there became a large amount of samurai without a master these samurai were called ronin. These ronin were different from most samurai because they were not loyal to any lord. Many of them became personal body guards for farm owners, and some became senseis, and others took the time to master the technique of the sword. As time has passed the so did the importance of the samurai warrior. There were no more battles to be fought and peace was among the country. This with Japan becoming a more industrialized nation. After years of isolationism and their declining economy Japan was finally forced to open trade with western countries including the United States. This caused a split in Japan between the conventional samurai ideals and those who wanted to bring in the new ways of the west. In 1876 the emperor decided that there would be no wearing swords unless you were part of the imperial armed forces. This was another symbol of the samurai‘s power no longer needed. Over time the samurai could no longer support themselves and returned to farming or working in cites. The role of the samurai warrior was finished. The Japanese samurais have been extremely influential figures throughout Japan’s history. Their influence has been seen is all aspects of Japanese life from the education of young boys in body and mind, to governing of the Emperors, to the study of the martial arts. Their code of honor and loyalty are traditions that all Japanese respect and try to live up to even today. The self sacrifice of ones own life for a common cause was even seen in World War II when Japanese pilots deliberately crashed their planes into United States ships anchored at Pearl Harbor. This was a devastating attack and can show the horror caused by revenge and their belief in sacrifice and honor. They were even called kamikaze pilots after the famous samurai battle of long ago. The influence of the samurai continues to be seen in Japan today in a positive way with the stories and legends of heroic samurai and the bushido as their guide. Works Cited Gaskin, Carol. and Hawkins, Vince. The Ways of the Samurai. New York: Byron Preiss Visual Publications, 2003 â€Å"History of the Samurai.† http://home.online.no/~p-loeand/samurai/hist-eng.htm â€Å"How Samurai Work.† http://science.howstuffworks.com/samurai.htm The History Channel: The Samurai. Videocassette. AE Television Networks, 2003. 100 min. Turnbull, Stephen. Samurai, The World of the Warrior. Oxford: Osprey Publishing, 2003

Interventions to Reduce Risk of Criminal Behaviour

Interventions to Reduce Risk of Criminal Behaviour Evaluate the evidence base for and against early intervention in the lives of children and families to forestall the development of Criminal behaviour. Methods of early Intervention After decades of rigorous study in the United States and across the Western world, a great deal is known about the early risk factors for offending. High impulsiveness, low attainment, criminal parents, parental conflict, and growing up in a deprived, high-crime neighbourhood are among the most important factors. ‘It is the accumulation of risk factors that characterises this much smaller groups persistent extreme violence.’[1] There is also a growing body of high quality scientific evidence on the effectiveness of early prevention programs designed to prevent children from embarking on a life of crime. Preschool intellectual enrichment, child skills training, parent management training, and home visiting programs are among the most effective early prevention programs. [2] Friedrich Losel, director of the Institute of Criminology at the University of Cambridge has researched that Conduct problems often start by the age of five and about 40 per cent go on to become more s erious and persistent as the child gets older. This is why its important to develop and implement measures to stop it relatively early.[3] Therefore, assessing the risk factor behaviour before offending occurs or become persistent is imperative. The Youth Survey suggests that the most common age for first time offending is between the age of 11-12 for mainstream pupils and 10-11 for those that have been excluded. If someone has not committed an offence by the age of 14 they will generally not do so. An early onset of delinquency prior to age 13 years increases the risk of later serious, violent, and chronic offending by a factor of 2–3. Also child delinquents, compared to juveniles who start offending at a later age, tend to have longer delinquent careers.[4] Rolf Loeber and David P Farrington advance that the protective factors in the individual, family, peer group, school, and neighbourhood affect the development of delinquency.[5] The risk factors that have been well researched are varied. ‘There is no easy link of cause and effect between the factors associated with youth crime and actual offending.’[6] The risk factors may be counteracted by positive influences such as good parenting. Notable risk factors include, being male; being brought up by a criminal parent or parents; living in a family with multiple problems; experiencing poor parenting and lack of supervision; poor discipline in the family and at school; playing truant or being excluded from school; associating with delinquent friends; and having siblings who offend. Research has illustrated that ‘two important influences are persistent school truancy and associating with offenders, but the single most important factor in explaining criminality is the quality of a young persons home life, including parental supervision.’ [7] The National Public Health Service for Wales issued an en evidence briefing so as to discuss interventions surrounding crime and the fear of crime in June 2005. The paper is as a result of studies relating to adult and juvenile offenders. As well as protecting against future criminal activity early intervention arguably promotes health. Building healthy public policy, creating supportive environments, strengthening community action, developing personal skills and re structuring health services are thought to help prevent against crime also.[8] The family factor of risk concerns ideals such as poor parenting, family history of offending and family conflict. For families, Behavioural Parent Training for anti social child behaviour acts as an effective strategy to modify child anti social behaviour and improve parental skills. Parenting programmes provide parents with an opportunity to improve their skills in dealing with the behaviour that puts their child at risk of offending. They provide parents/carers with one-to-one advice as well as practical support in handling the behaviour of their child, setting appropriate boundaries and improving communication. Pre school children who fall within one or more of the risk categories should also be placed into day care, establishing a supportive environment for both the child and the parent. The outcome of this method of intervention appears to be increased employment, lower teenage pregnancy rates, higher social class status and decreased criminal behaviour in intervention populati on. Trials have established some weaknesses, but the potential population effective impact is very broad. To prevent youth violence specifically, it has been researched that interventions applied between the prenatal period and the age of six appear to be most effective. Community based programmes that target high risk behaviour is seen as beneficial. Family and parenting intervention for conduct disorders and delinquency for those aged between 10 and 17 years also have beneficial effects in decreasing criminal activity. High quality pre school supervision has been seen to decrease arrests and arrests specifically for drug dealing. Time spent on probation is also decreased in this way. It is a cost effective method of intervention ad can be implemented within pre school education and programmes within day care and nursery.[9] The School factor of risk flags up cases of low achievement, lack of attendance, lack of commitment, aggressive behaviour and bullying. Safer school’s partnerships provide a much focused approach to address the high level of crime and antisocial behaviour committed in and around schools in some areas – crime committed by and against children and young people. There are now 370 police officers based in selected schools in areas with high levels of street crime. This is a joint initiative between the Department for Education and Skills the Youth Justice Board and the Association of Chief Police Officers which aims to reduce criminality, antisocial behaviour and criminality.[10] Academic and vocational interventions in order to educate those with a lesser capability than others are seen to be effective in reducing recidivism. Behavioural and skill orientated classes for those showing risk are among the most successful interventions to reduce crime and recidivism. To preven t offending, the Youth Justice Board set up schemes such as the Youth Inclusion programme. Under this programme young people who are engaged in crime or at risk of offending are identified by youth offending teams and the programme gives young people somewhere safe to go where they can learn new skills, take part in activities with others and get help with their education and careers guidance. Youth Inclusion and Support Panels aim to prevent antisocial behaviour and offending by 8 to 13-year-olds who are considered to be at high risk of offending. Panels are made up of a number of representatives of different agencies such as social services and health. The main emphasis of a panels work is to ensure that children and their families, at the earliest possible opportunity, can access mainstream public services. [11] The community factor of risk revolves around community disorganisation, neglect and community tolerance of crime and drugs. The individual, personality factor of risk includes early problematic behaviours surrounding drugs and alcohol and the notion of criminally active friends. [12] Positive Activities for Young People provides a broad range of constructive activities for 8 to 19-year-olds at risk of social exclusion. It builds on the success of previous school holiday programmes such as the Youth Justice Board’s Splash and Connexions’ Summer Plus. The programme aims to reduce crime and to ensure that young people return to education, have opportunities to engage in new and constructive activities, and can mix with others from different backgrounds. This cross-government initiative aims to develop young people’s interests, talents and education, and engage them in community activities so they are less likely to commit crime. Activities based on arts, sport and c ulture take place both during the school holidays and out of school hours throughout the year. Positive Futures is a national sports-based social inclusion programme aimed at marginalised 10 to 19-year-olds in the most deprived areas. By engaging these young people in sport and other activities, Positive Futures aims to build relationships between responsible adults and young people based on mutual trust and respect, in order to create new opportunities for alternative lifestyles.[13] One method which many may overlook is the punishment of offenders once they have offended at whatever age. If a young person is convicted of an offence, there are a number of community and custodial sentences. The community sentences currently available include, Community Rehabilitation and Punishment Order, Supervision Order, Action Plan Order Attendance Sentence Order, Referral Order, Reparation Order, Fine, Conditional Discharge and Absolute Discharge. Young people can also be given an Intensive Supervision and Surveillance Programme as part of an order. ISSP is the most rigorous non-custodial intervention available for young offenders. It combines high levels of community-based surveillance with a comprehensive and sustained focus on tackling the factors that contribute to the young persons offending behaviour. The programme targets the most active repeat young offenders, and those who commit the most serious crimes.[14]Punishment does afford deterrent effects but it is no clear how much in cases of increased severity. As this is not always cost effective, this is one reason why possible alternatives should be considered Although some of the methods I have just discussed are effective, the effects may be limited. For example, Behavioural Parent Training for anti social behaviour in children is a short term procedure and for long term sustainability it will require other methods to supplement the training. Changes within the environment and the community are also seen as a potential short term effect because it is proven that changes do reduce criminal activity and fear of crime but there is little information on whether this has been a long term deterrent. Cognitive behavioural multidimensional programmes to prevent youth violence can be effective but the main area of weakness within youth crime prevention is that the approaches for youth crime have not been well evaluated. Controlled studies are needed regarding diversion programmes, counselling and therapy in order to see their preventative quality. Family and group treatment has also worked in the short term but seems to decrease dramatically as t ime passes. If communities can build home visiting programmes to prevent crime, that are comprehensive, continuous and family focussed these are most likely to succeed long term. This is dependant on other services on offer in the community and the scope of the programmes facilitated. Physiological and social skill training of children is seen to prevent adolescent aggression but not for the duration. All those involved with a child’s upbringing are required to show them what is right and what is wrong and the consequences of their behaviour. This is seen as effective so as not to cause inadvertent damage. The social skill training for children has prevented criminal behaviour and aggression but the success of the effectiveness is different in different settings and for different personalities. There are a variety of ineffective methods of intervention. Namely, community crime prevention programmes have insufficient evidence to state that such interventions can alter the behaviour of individuals who do not see crime as wrong. Even juvenile offender programmes have come under scrutiny due to the abandonment of recreational programmes, guided intervention, social case work and detached worked programmes as they are seen as ineffective. There is a wide variability in the reported effects and so even if more behavioural and skilled orientated programmes were introduced it would need to be done area by area. Mentoring pairs a volunteer adult with a young person at risk of offending. The adults role is to motivate and support the young person on the scheme through a sustained relationship over an extended period of time. Youth Offending Teams have been set up to work with young offenders and young people at risk of offending. These are multi-agency teams made up of representative s from social services, police, health, housing, police, probation, education and dug and alcohol workers and this will be set up in every local authority area However, Mentoring and peer counselling are see to be less effective in order to prevent youth violence from an early age. Intensive casework to prevent youth crime has evidence that argues against this approach as more often than not it has had negative effects. The review conducted by the Wider Determinants Inequalities (2005) Interventions: Crime and Fear of Crime, found that there was little evidence of effectiveness for any intervention and the evidence that does exist is described as ‘slight, inconsistent and of questionable reliability.’[15] A Summary and critical commentary on history of early intervention attempts in the UK and it’s continual development. In the 1990’s there was a huge increase in the number of children engaging in criminal activity and caught up in the youth justice system. The labour party wanted to reform the youth justice system in 1997 to stop the increase. The focus was on parental responsibility and new parental responsibility orders in order to ‘force parents face up to their responsibility for their childrens misbehaviour.’[16] Labour introduced the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 and the Youth Justice Board was set up to drive the reforms forwards. ’The aim of the YJB is to prevent offending among under-18s and it delivers this by setting standards and monitoring performance, promoting good practice and diverting young people away from crime through early identification and prevention programmes.’[17]The act implemented proposals such as the Child safety order, designed to protect children under ten who are at risk of becoming involved in crime or who have already started to beh ave in an anti-social or criminal manner. The local authority can require a child to be at home for a number of evenings a week, stay away from certain people and prohibit conduct such as truancy.[18] Also, the local child curfew for those under ten, is proposed to protect children, to prevent neighborhood and to promote supervision of young children, unsupervised late at night. [19] Schemes such as those outlined above have provided an effective immediate method of intervention. The Children Act 2004 also placed much emphasis on joined-up working and early intervention. It aimed to divert young people away from crime and ensure parents are responsible for their child’s behaviour. The Government then planned a Draft Bill, building on the responses to the September 2003 consultation ‘Youth Justice: The Next Steps.’[20]It introduced better sentencing of juveniles with a sharper focus on preventing offending and simplification of sentences. Rolf Loeber and David P Farrington were in agreement with the ‘preventive and remedial interventions in the juvenile justice system, families, peer groups, schools, and neighbourhoods, and makes a case for improvement in the integration of services for child delinquents.’ [21]The premise of action by those working within juvenile justice, mental health and child welfare has been supported alongside policy recommendations. The youth crime strategy looked at targeting risk factors and those most at risk. The ‘Every Child Matters’ and ‘Children’s Bill’ afforded structural reform to children’s activities within the early years.[22] The joint Home Office and youth justice board issued guidance alongside this with the supporting aim to prevent children and young people being involved in criminality in the first place.[23] Through identifying early those most at risk and commencing intensive target programmes they hoped to decrease the number of children that turned to criminal activity. Research by the Home Office has shown that those most at risk of offending have not entered into criminality where the have participated in preventative programmes. The lack of successful implementation of these programmes has meant that prevention of very young children growing up and turning to crime is inadequate. The early years influence children greatly and the age at which children begin to offend the more likely they are to continue offending.[24] Presently, measures tackling prevention of children becoming involved in criminal and anti social behavior are insufficient. The Government should not and will not dictate how children should be raised or the running of a family home, but parents hold the primary responsibility for giving children the love and care they need, ensuring their welfare and security and teaching them right from wrong. Intervention methods, still fail to adequately address the parent, child and criminal activity connection. When discussing the potential of continual development regarding early intervention, the thesis of Friedrich Losel, considers it necessary to look at three categories of programme to act as a means of early intervention. Firstly, there is Universal Prevention which requires social services to be in contact with all families in the UK. This would also act as a technique for access where the family requires a more intensive and interactive service. The obvious problems with this theory are that although thorough and highly stringent, social service may not have the resources funding or manpower to carry out this proposal as well as it should be. Secondly, there could be Selective Prevention where social services focus on families at risk, such as young, single mothers and those who already have crime within their families. This is close to the system that the government, police and local authorities agree with but it is also close to the system that we have at the moment which is insuf ficient. The problem is whether the option typecasts people too much and does not look at the bigger picture or new risks surfacing. Thirdly is the theory of Indicated Prevention, where social services make a clear assessment of the childs development when they have already shown some aggressive behaviour, such as fighting, disobeying parents, or fire setting. If the child shows these behaviours in more than one social context, such as at school and at home, then this is an early indicator, says Losel. The problem is that these families often think this is normal which is why professionals have an important warning function because they are more neutral in recognising the problem.’[25] Again this is also close to the current system, and although more resource friendly, it still waits until there has been an affirmative action before any form of intervention occurs. This is the deficiency with the system at present. From these three ideals, we are no closer to providing a unif ormed means of intervention unless all three are used and applied on a case by case basis. There is consensus with Losel in that research has provided a relatively sound knowledge of risk factors but there are a number of programmes requiring better evaluation about which ones are successful in the long-term. There are only a few specialist services available and because of the scarce specialist provision at an early age, such as residential school placements, foster care, family placements, therapeutic input, assessments or forensic advice, professionals have been unable to respond to the behaviour of the children before it gets so serious in adolescence. It is then for the already overworked, under funded and under staffed Social Services who end up trying to sort the problem. The risk factors are known but it can be ‘difficult to distinguish which child will go on to be extremely dangerous. So it can be difficult to get funding for specialist resources] on the basis that you are predicting something that hasnt happened yet.[26] It is argued that early intervention is the key rather than the present strategy where it is only when a child does something as extraordinary or dangerous as this that they get a response. Further,† the inability to respond and prioritise some cases over others, early on, means we end up with these extreme behaviours. [27] Diversities, contradictions and debates in public discourses of early childhood convey only a fraction of the challenge, when set in context of (generally unarticulated) diversities in beliefs, ideas and experiences that shape individual children’s lives. Any close study of young children reveals the complexity of the worlds they inhabit, the very different pressures on parents, caregivers and others on whom their wellbeing depends. Starting points for policy development are very different where early childhood is dominated by extreme poverty, inequality or discrimination, or by ethnic struggle, civil or cross-national conflict, or by malnutrition, preventable diseases or HIV/Aids, by family or community breakdown and forced migration, or by weak or corrupt infrastructures of care and education, health and social support. Asking about young children’s perspective on their own unique early childhood is arguably the most crucial starting point for policy and practice. It is argued that none of the strategies implemented or proposed will magically work unless the general problems are made right first and ‘every child needs consistency of care and education before you can give them anything more specialist.[28] Upon this, programmes should be structured well and detail casework for each individual case. Staff should be trained, supervised and be representative of the workload in order to match demand. The remedy requires ‘adequate endurance and intensity this is not quick fix.’[29]The longer it takes to intervene, the more intensive the problems become and the more it costs to deal with. Estimated costs include special pre-school, school, intensive foster care, residential care, psychiatry, social services, health services, involvement with criminal justice and damages to others. In conclusion, within the climate of today, everyone appears in agreement that although it is never too late to turn a child’s life around, As they reach adolescence the probability of changing the course of their life gets less and less.[30] Although I am in agreement with early intervention, in order to progress development successfully, an integrated policy is required so that a trial and error strategy can be avoided. There seems to be no shame in admitting that we ‘need some indicators to show what kind of programme is needed for what kind of family at what time.[31] Bibliography Articles Submission from the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) (2005) Every Child Matters- Education and Skills Select Committee. Wider Determinants Inequalities (2005) Interventions: Crime and Fear of Crime. Lane B, (2005) Youth Crime Prevention- An Overview. Home Office Publications. Cambridge University Press, (2000) Young children who commit Crime, Cambridge University Press Online. Boyd, J (2007) Children and crime: early intervention is the key. Government Publication: (1997) No More Excuses: A new approach to tackling youth crime in England and Wales. Jerrom, C (2007) Youth Justice: The Bigger Picture on the youth justice system. Jenny Boyd, Renuka Jeyarajah-Dent and Vivian Hill talk to Natalie Valios (2007) Children and crime: early intervention is the key. P.1 Text Books Feldman, M.A (2003) Early Intervention- The essential readings. Blackwell Publishing. Farrington, D.P Welsh, B.C (2006) Saving Children from a life of Crime – Early risk factors and effective interventions. Oxford University Press. Burke, R.H (2003) An introduction to Criminological Theory. Willan Publishing. Galvin, K.M Byland, C.L Brummel, B.J (2003) Family Communication (6th Ed). Person Publishing. Lemert, C (2002) Introduction to Sociological life (2nd Ed). Rowman Littlefield Publishing. Maguire, M Morgan,R Reiner, R (2002) Handbook of Criminology (3rd Ed). Oxford Publishing. Statutes Crime and Disorder Act 1998 Children Act 2004 Draft Bill building on responses to the September 2003 consultation ‘Youth Justice. Websites www.communitycare.co.uk www.publications.parliament.uk www.Homeoffice.co.uk Top of Form 1 Footnotes [1] Jenny Boyd, Renuka Jeyarajah-Dent and Vivian Hill talk to Natalie Valios (2007) Children and crime: early intervention is the key. P.1 [2] Saving Children from a Life of Crime Early Risk Factors and Effective Interventions David P. Farrington and Brandon C. Welsh October 2007 [3] Ibid., P.2 [4] Young children who commit crime: Epidemiology, developmental origins, risk factors, early interventions, and policy implications :Development and Psychopathology (2000), 12: 737-762 Cambridge University Press doi:10.1017/S0954579400004107Published online by Cambridge University Press 16Jan2001 [5] Rolf Loeber David P. Farrington (2000) Child Delinquents: Development, Intervention, and Service Needs. [6] Government Publication (1997) No More Excuses: A new approach to tackling youth crime in England and Wales [7] Ibid., [8] Wider Determinants Inequalities (2005) Interventions: Crime and Fear of Crime. See: Ottawa charter, Canada (1986), In relation to the relationship between health and early intervention. [9] For a more informed discussion see: Wider Determinants Inequalities (2005) Interventions: Crime and Fear of Crime. [10] Submission from the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) (2005) Every Child Matters- Education and Skills Select Committee. Ch.2 [11] Ch.4.Ibid. [12] Boyd, J (2007) Children and crime: early intervention is the key. [13] Submission from the Association of Chief Police Officers (ACPO) (2005) Every Child Matters- Education and Skills Select Committee. Ch.5. [14] Ch.5 Ibid [15] Wider Determinants Inequalities (2005) Interventions: Crime and Fear of Crime. [16] Government Publication (1997) No More Excuses: A new approach to tackling youth crime in England and Wales [17] Jerrom, C (2007) Youth Justice: The Bigger Picture on the youth justice system.P.2 [18] If the requirements of an order are not complied with, it will be open to the local authority to commence care proceedings under Section 31(1) (a) of the Children Act 1989. [19] Where there is non compliance and no responsible adult present, the police might use powers already available to them under section 46 of the Children Act 1989 to remove the child to other suitable accommodation. [20] Lane B, (2005) Youth Crime Prevention- An Overview. Home Office Publications. [21] Rolf Loeber David P. Farrington (2000) Child Delinquents: Development, Intervention, and Service Needs. [22] Both published 2003. [23] Lane B, (2005) Youth Crime Prevention- An Overview. Home Office Publications. [24] Jerrom, C (2007) Youth Justice: The Bigger Picture on the youth justice system. [25] Jenny Boyd, Renuka Jeyarajah-Dent and Vivian Hill talk to Natalie Valios (2007) Children and crime: early intervention is the key. P.3 [26] Ibid. Vivian Hill discusses the problems she faces as a consultant educational psychologist at the institute of education, university of London.P.4 [27] Ibid. [28] Ibid. Jeyarajah-Dent discusses. P5 [29] Ibid. [30]Friedrich Losel Ibid. [31]Friedrich Losel Ibid.